Dowling College: ASC 128: Criminality and Genetics

Predisposition to Criminality-Nature vs Nurture? Jennifer Fusco

ASC128-Ethics in the New Genetic Era Winter 2001

Behavior patterns have been explored and investigated since the 18th Century and the question, “Is an individual predispositioned to criminality?” is actually dated. “Nature vs. Nurture”, has been debated by philosophers, psychologist and biologists for years, and with the increase in knowledge concerning genetics and human DNA, we are working harder than ever to achieve a conclusive answer. As early as the 1880’s, there have been theories and concepts regarding the predisposition to criminality. With regard to Science, Law, and Psychology I will attempt to offer possible answers to the question posed above, “ Is an individual predispositioned to criminality?”

Before genetic testing, typology was accepted by the scientific community as a form of identifying criminals. Typology is the “criminological theory of types”, and an Italian criminologist,”... Cesare Lombroso, in an extension of the phrenological theorizing of the early part of the century, criminals could be identified by certain basic physiological features”. (Lewontin, p. 53) Phrenology as defined by the Encyclopedia Brittanica, “ is the study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of mental faculties and traits of character.” (http://www.Britannica.com).

These features include; feeble cranial capacity, heavy and developed jaw, projecting [eye] ridges, abnormal and asymmetrical cranium, projecting ears, frequently flat or crooked nose. ” (Lewontin, p.53).

Perhaps the most well known theory, is the “Supermale” Syndrome. In the case of a “Supermale”, a male would possess an extra Y chromosome in their DNA makeup. Generally, a male would contribute an X or Y chromosome, and the mother would contribute an X chromosome. If the child receives and X chromosome from both parents, then the result would be a girl. On the other hand if the child receives and X and a Y chromosome, than the result would be a boy. Remarkably, about 1 in 1000 newborn males are born with a X and 2 Y chromosomes thereby creating the “Supermale”. (Steen, p.232).

Studies have shown that the additional Y chromosome has serious impacts on the development of a child. Many have attempted to prove that men who possess the XYY chromosome are far more aggressive. Yet these studies have been inconclusive. Most studies have shown that XYY men are less intelligent and possess an IQ lower than the average person. Because of their diminished capacity for learning, less “supermales” complete High School, and therefore are more inclined to become criminals.

In an effort to substantiate the correlation between the XYY chromosome and criminal behavior there have been many studies conducted at various prisons within the last 50 years. A team of scientists in Great Britain conducted a study at the maximum-security state hospital in Carstairs Scotland. Of 342 prisoners, the scientists were able to obtain blood samples from 197 of them for purposes of testing for the XYY chromosome. Based on the previous studies that suggested that 1 in 1,000 men would indeed carry the extra Y chromosome, the scientists did not expect to find 7 inmates with the chromosome abnormality. The unexpected results brought the percentage of the population of XYY males to 3.5%. (Taylor, p. 76).

In Philip Kitcher’s book, The Lives to Come, he considers how the XYY chromosome may have been used as a determinant in terminating pregnancies. He writes, that based on the findings from the prison studies, “Mothers who discovered through amniocentesis that the fetus they were carrying was an XYY male came to believe, on the basis of apparently rigorous science, that they would be more likely to give birth to a future jailbird or maniac.” (p. 69). He indicates that we will never truly know the number of people whose decision was affected by this information, but subsequent studies have shown, “that a fetus diagnosed as XYY is destined for the prison or the asylum is not high--it is only 4 percent.”(p.69).

Through further research, it has been determined that men who carry the XYY chromosome lack the ability”... to metabolize several different chemicals that transmit nerve impulses to the brain.... This impairment is due to a direct result of an X-linked mutation that disables an enzyme called MAOA.”(Steen, p.234). Because of the disabled enzyme, MAOA (Mononamine Oxidase type A) is unable to metabolize three neurotransmitters; norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine.

Any deficiency in these neurotransmitters can adversely affect the mental health of an individual, and studies have shows that they play a significant role in the impulsive behavior of an individual. Therefore, we can conclude that if there is a deficiency in any of the neurotransmitters, that an individual might be less capable of controlling their emotions and impulses, which in turn increases their probability to commit crimes and exhibit violent behavior.

As a whole, society and science have accepted the concept that twins are genetically linked. However, when considering criminal behavior there is still skepticism and interest as to what role the environment plays in the development of a human being. According to R. Grant Steen, “Human tendency to violence is associated with an inhospitable environment.”(p. 219.) This is a rather bold statement, but based on his research, statistically the tendency for a child in an impoverished home to become a criminal, is six times higher than normal in families with an annual income below $15,000. Because of the financial stresses the family encounters, the child is more likely to be abused, will be exposed to marital violence and chances are the child will be more likely to grow into a violent adult. (Steen, p.219).

Contrary to that idea, many psychologists would argue that the environment where the child grows up plays a much greater role in the development of an individual. In a survey conducted by Remi Cadoret, they compared the biological children of parents with “troubled” backgrounds with children whose parents do not have these problems. Just as the previous studies reflected the strong biological connection between the parent and child, supported the notion that a good home environment meant the difference between “success and failure”. As illustrated in Living with Our Genes, “A bad seed planted in good soil had a decent chance. A bad seed planted in bad soil withered. Humans by nature respond well to nurture, but they also respond to its absence.”(Hamer, p. 97). The environment, both financially and emotionally are obviously very important when raising a child, but in raising a child with “special needs”, it plays the most powerful role.

Subsequent to my research, I was a strong advocate of behaviorism, and the effects of environment on a child’s growth and development. I certainly still feel strongly that this plays an important role in the personality and behavior of a child, however, I am more certain now that criminality is indeed linked genetically. I am not confident in the studies regarding the XYY chromosome because I believe the studies can be skewed by unrealistic conditions, such as prisons.. However, the stories regarding twins and the adoption studies strongly suggest that individuals regardless of their environment, have an innate or genetic link to one another, and I am sure that geneticists and scientists in the “interest of science”, will continue to search for the “criminal chromosome”.

Feedback

I would like thank everyone for taking the time to complete the feedback and for the suggestions in improving my public speaking skills. I would first like to apologize to all for my “meak” voice. I was unaware that I could not be heard, and regret that you felt that the tone of my voice affected my presentation. I will certainly remember that I must SPEAK UP when holding discussions from behind the desk.

Also, I was pleased to hear that so many of you enjoyed the case studes as much as I did. When I first read these tales, I found it fascinating. I now have a new interest in TWINS!

I would like to also thank everyone who considered that I was not given the an opporunity to respond to questions as the end of my presentation, which could have ultimately affected my grade. Finally, I realize that there were a few of my peers who felt my presentation was dull and unengaging, and I regret that I could not do more to keep you interested in the discussion. Overall, I was very pleased with the response I received in regard to my presentation, and will certainly use this as a “learning” experience.

References

Degler, Charles, In Search of Human Nature, The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Thought. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

I found this book to be a difficult text. The book used a lot of scientific jargon, and expressions that sometimes made it confusing to follow. However, there was a lot of information to be found.

Hamer, Dean and Peter Copeland, Living with Our Genes, Why They Matter More Than You Think. New York: Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, 1998.

This was an excellent read! The chapters were short, and the language was clear and easy to follow. The book touched on a lot of subjects that we as young adults are personally interested in, and the case studies and discussions made this an easy book to read.

Kitcher, Philip, The Lives To Come. New York:Touchstone, 1997.

This book had its good points and its bad points. From chapter to chapter the readability of the information seemed to change. There was also a lot of science in this book.

Lewontin, R.C., Steven Rose and Leon J. Kamin, Not In Our Genes, Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature. New York:Pantheon Books, 1984.

This book was an excellent resource for my paper. It hit upon all the subjects needed in regard to this course. At times the it could be a little confusing, but for the most part it was quite helpful.

Nelkin, Dorothy and M. Susan Lindee, The DNA Mystique, The Gene As A Cultural Icon. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1995.

I enjoyed this book very much. This book touched upon media, legal ramifications, and discussed serious issues in regards to genetics in an interesting fashion. The references made in the book were recent, and discussed such topics as Law and Order, TV movies, which helped to relate somewhat difficult information to a subject(s) much more comfortable about.

Steen, R. Grant, DNA and Destiny, Nature & Nurture in Human Behavior.

New York:Plenum Press, 1996.

This book was a little difficult to read. The topics were somewhat limited, but with a little bit of effort you could gain a good amount of information for research.

Taylor, Lawrence, Born to Crime, The genetic causes of criminal behavior. Connecticut:Greenwood Press, 1984.

This was my favorite book. This book was fast reading, interesting, and informative. This is the kind of book that one might read for personal interest. The case histories and stories relayed in the book bring life to a topic very difficult and complex to appreciate.