THE GENETIC ENGINEERING OF FOODS

By Scott Amrhein

In the last decade the world has experienced major advances in the field of genetic engineering. New technologies are being developed and used to alter the foods that we produce and consume. Along with these advances come many issues that will need to be addressed. These issues will focus on social, ecological, human health, ethical and the legal factors associated with the genetic engineering of foods. The term genetic engineering is defined as; "the manipulation of information in the DNA of an organism in order to alter the characteristics of the organism".1

Farmers have been genetically altering crops for centuries by crossbreeding different varieties of a crop in order to increase yield and quality. With the aid of new biotechnology techniques we are now able to insert a gene from one species into another species. This transgenic process allows scientists to cross over the species barrier, which creates possibilities that were never available before, either to traditional breeders or in nature. The first transgenic procedure that was successfully performed was in 1983 using a tobacco plant. With the use of new technologies, scientists are able to be more precise and creative with their application. New methods of gene transfer allow this to occur. These methods include; viral vectors, bacterial vectors, gene guns, gene silencing, and the use of marker genes.

The use of genetic engineering in the agricultural arena has been concentrated in several areas. One major area of genetic modification (GM) is the development of herbicide-resistant crops. These genetically engineered plants are designed to withstand higher levels of herbicide which need to be applied for effective weed control. The more herbicide that a farmer can apply means less weeds, which results in higher yields and a cleaner, higher quality product without harming the crop.

Another area of genetic modification is the production of insect-resistant crops. Transgenic plants are engineered to produce toxins that are lethal to insects that normally attack that particular plant or crop. The benefits of insect-resistant crops include; an economic savings on insecticide, labor, and equipment. Insect-resistant crops may also benefit the environment by decreasing the amounts of insecticides that are used by farmers every year. Genetic engineering is also being used to enhance particular food characteristics. Fruits and vegetables are engineered to stay firmer longer and to delay ripening which increases shelf life and prevents spoilage. These fruits and vegetables can also be designed to have increased nutritional content or to resist drought, frost, viral infections, and fungal infections.

Another area where genetic engineering is being used in the production of our food supply is with livestock. Breeders are producing transgenic animals with faster growth rates and lower fat levels. Livestock animals are also being genetically altered to manipulate both the quantity and quality of animal milk. Bovine somatotropin or BST is a growth hormone that is produced by modified bacteria and injected into cows, which increases milk production by between 15 and 25%. Transgenic animals are also being genetically modified to produce drugs in their milk in a new industry called "pharming". Some of these products are called neutraceuticals, which means part drug-part food. These transgenic animals may be designed to produce milk that could contain dietary supplements or an enhanced vitamin content that can be used as a nutritionally enriched infant formula.

The production of genetically engineered foods has raised several important issues that need to be addressed by society. The first major area of concern is the health risk to humans that genetically modified foods may possess. These risks include; toxicity, allergens, nutrition values, and the potential for an increased resistance to antibiotic treatments. One example of a foods toxicity was documented in 1989. This occurred when a genetically engineered form of the dietary supplement, l-tryptophan, produced toxic contaminants that caused 37 deaths and 1,511 nonfatal cases of a disease called eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome.

The genetic engineering of foods also possess the risk of causing allergic reactions in humans. Studies have demonstrate that the potential exists where an individual who is allergic to one product may become allergic to other products that contain DNA from that primary allergen. Genetically modified foods may also be able to create new allergens. Scientists are also concerned about the use of antibiotic resistance genes which may be transferred to bacteria living in the guts of humans or animals which could reduce the efficiency of antibiotic drug treatments.

Ecological risks are another area of concern involved in the production of genetically modified foods. Studies have been shown to be inconclusive but tend to focus primarily on "genetic pollution" (release of transgenic pollen which can contaminate wild relatives), depleted soil and bacteria (which are necessary for growth), new disease causing virus's, and the risk of transgenic seeds infecting neighboring farms. Ecologists also fear that the use of herbicide-tolerant crops may actually triple the amount of herbicides that are dumped into the environment. Ethical and moral issues are another area of concern when discussing GM foods. Of major importance is the right of people or companies being allowed to hold patents on the products of transgenic development. Currently patents are being awarded to companies for seeds and licensing agreements in the United States.

Patents give these companies exclusive intellectual property rights on organisms, genes, or processes for up to twenty years. By allowing United States companies to patent genetically modified products this gives corporations an unfair advantage over third world countries by allowing these companies to control crop production around the world. These U.S. companies, backed by government licensing are able to use this position to influence the World Trade Organization. The countries or companies who hold these patents will be in a position to dictate global agriculture. Another ethical consideration is that of animal welfare. This area is concerned with the issue of animal suffering and the regulation of their production. Not many studies have been done in this area and further research is needed. The last ethical issue I would like to address is that of ethnic contamination. This pertains to the use of animal products and genes that certain religions factions avoid consuming. Vegetarians may also fall into this category, depending on their beliefs.

The legal issues facing genetically engineered foods are also likely to produce considerable debate. Patenting is one such issue. In 1980 the US Supreme Court ruled in Diamond v. Chakrabarty, that a new strain of the bacterium Pseudomonas" could be patented. The court ruled that the bacterium was not a naturally occurring species, and therefore was the result of human invention, which allows it to be patented. By patenting genetically modified seeds and products, large companies hope that with U.S. licensing they will be able to influence the World Trade Organization. The United States patenting and licensing of genetic products and procedures gives major corporations considerable legal leverage in the global arena. One of the largest legal issues facing GM food is labeling. Law suits have been already been filed against The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for mandatory safety testing and labeling of genetically engineered foods. Without proper labeling, millions of Americans will have no way of knowing what is in their food and therefore which foods to avoid. This is of particular concern for people with allergies and those with certain religious beliefs.

Numerous debates and controversy involving genetically engineered foods have been waged in the media and in the fields. The social implications of their use are constantly being examined and redefined. Proponents of genetically engineered foods focus on all the potential benefits that this technology has to offer society. They claim that this technology will be able to solve the worlds hunger problems. Opponents disagree claiming that world hunger is influenced more by the political and economic climate than a need for a larger, monocultural food supply. They state that many food poor countries utilize their agricultural land to produce cash crops for export rather than grow food for their consumption. Consumer groups, such as "GreenPeace" and the "Union Of Concerned Scientists" are actively pursuing governments and corporations to become more socially responsible. They believe that the public has a right to be informed about the foods and products that they consume. These groups believe that the producers' interests should not come at the expense of society.

The use of genetically engineered foods will continue to be a controversial topic in the years to come. New technologies will continually force society to address the inherent risks and benefits that genetically engineered foods possess. The technology of genetics has the potential to dramatically change the world in which we live, for good or bad.

Conclusion

After doing this research I came to several conclusions. First, I believe that more research and testing need to be done before any genetically modified organism or product is approved for human consumption. Second I believe that national and international regulations need to be in place before major corporations are permitted to patent and possibly dictate global agriculture. Third, I don't believe that anything should be patented that is one of the primary needs of life. Fourth, I believe that any product that contains genetically modified DNA or is made utilizing genetically engineered products should be labeled. The consumer should have a choice. Finally, I believe that genetically modified foods will not become widely accepted until the public perceives a specific need that can only be gotten through genetic engineering.

Most of the feed back that I received from the class focused on several areas.

The first area was that my presentation was a little bit long in length. Another area that received criticism was the inappropriate use of the words "um" and "stuff".

The class evaluation also reflected that I needed to pose better questions in-order to get the class more involved in my presentation. I believe that my class evaluations were very accurate as I felt the same deficiencies as I was delivering my presentation. I also feel that I missed several opportunities to get the class involved in some discussions. I feel that the class evaluations can prove to be quite useful for future presentations.

Eat Your Genes: How genetically engineered food is entering our diet
By: Stephen Nottingham
Published by: Zed Books Ltd 1998
This was an extremely helpful book. It is current and is an easy read. It covers many aspects involved with the production of genetically engineered foods and I recommend it highly.

The Gene Hunters: Biotechnology And The Scramble For Seeds (1) pg. xiv
By: Calestous Juma
Published by: Princeton University Press 1989
This was a very useful book for research and specific information concerning the implications that surround genetic engineering. This book deals primarily with the history and world ecological factors effected by this new technology.

Origins Of Mendelism
By: Robert C. Olby
Published by: Schocken Books 1967
This was a very deep, scientific recollection of the history behind genetic manipulation. This was not very useful in my research.

Altered Harvest: Agriculture, Genetics, and the Fate of the World's Food Supply
By: Jack Doyle
Published by: Viking Penquin Inc. 1985
This book is very informative. It covers many issues and raises some very good questions, which may have been answered already because the book was published in 1985. I recommend this book because it is still relevant today and covers topics in a clear and concise manner.

A New Technological Era for American Agriculture
By: U.S. Congress, of Technology Assessment 1992
This book was useful in my research. It contains numerous facts and tables concerning governmental programs. It is put out by the U.S. government and has some good photos. It is somewhat scientific.
 

All web resources should be viewed with some skepticism due to the fact that it is unmonitored and can be opinion based.
www.Greenpeaceusa.org

An excellent resource for getting information about current issues and concerns about the environment.

www.foodsafetynow.org
www.naturallaw.org.nz/genetics/handbook/14.htm
www.truefoodnow.org
www.centerforfoodsafety.org
www.ucsusa.org/gene/w98.market.html